Citizenship and Identity in the Roman Empire
Quick Summary
Citizenship in the Roman Empire shaped a person’s rights, social standing, legal protections, and sense of belonging. Identity was deeply tied to birthplace, family, social class, and loyalty to Rome. Understanding this world helps illuminate the background of Ephesians, where Paul describes believers as citizens of God’s household—a radically different and spiritually grounded identity that redefined honor, allegiance, and community.
Introduction
In the Roman Empire, citizenship was more than a legal category. It was a powerful social identity that shaped everything from clothing and taxes to legal rights and public honor. Citizens enjoyed privileges that set them apart from non-citizens, including protection under Roman law, access to courts, and exemption from certain punishments.
Most inhabitants of the empire were not citizens. They were provincials, freedpersons, or enslaved individuals with limited or no legal status. Citizenship could be inherited, granted as a reward, or purchased at great cost.
Paul’s language in Ephesians about being “citizens with the saints” and “members of God’s household” (Ephesians 2:19) speaks directly into this layered world of identity and belonging. This new identity grounded in Christ reshaped how early Christians understood themselves and their place in the world.
Citizenship and Identity in the Roman Empire
1. Roman Citizenship as Privilege and Power
Roman citizens held a set of privileges known as the beneficia, including:
legal protection from arbitrary punishment,
the right to appeal to the emperor,
exemption from degrading forms of execution,
the right to contract legal marriages,
and the ability to pass citizenship to their children.
These privileges reinforced social hierarchies across the empire. Citizenship was a symbol of status and a gateway to opportunity.
Paul’s redefinition of citizenship in Citizens and Members of God’s Household stands in deliberate contrast to the empire’s privileges. Believers receive their identity not through birth or wealth but through Christ.
2. The Layers of Identity in Roman Society
Identity in the empire involved overlapping categories:
birthplace,
family lineage,
social rank,
ethnic background,
religious devotion,
and legal status.
A person might be a Roman citizen living in a Greek city, part of a Jewish household, and connected to a local guild. These layers shaped expectations and responsibilities.
Ephesians reframes identity around unity and new creation rather than ethnicity or social class. This theme appears in New Humanity in Ephesians and Unity in Christ.
3. Provincial Identity and Local Pride
Few people outside Italy were Roman citizens before the second century. Most residents of cities like Ephesus were provincials, proud of their local heritage.
Ephesus boasted:
the Temple of Artemis,
its status as a major port city,
and its reputation for scholarship and trade.
Local identity was tied to festivals, guilds, religious devotion, and civic loyalty. Paul’s call to find identity in Christ challenged these long-standing sources of pride. This context shapes the backdrop for articles such as Ephesus in the Time of Paul and 6 Surprising Facts About the Temple of Artemis.
4. Freedpersons and Enslaved Persons
A significant portion of the empire’s population was enslaved, and many more were freedpersons. Enslaved individuals had no legal personhood. Freedpersons gained limited rights, including the ability to work, conduct business, and eventually have citizen children.
These complex layers of status form the background for Paul’s household instructions and his teaching on unity in The Household Code in Context.
5. Citizenship as a Marker of Honor and Status
Honor was central in the Roman world. Citizens held higher honor than provincials, men held more honor than women, and free persons held more honor than enslaved persons.
Identity was affirmed through:
public roles,
clothing (such as the citizen’s toga),
titles,
and civic participation.
Paul redefines honor by grounding it in Christ’s love, humility, and sacrifice. Believers receive a new identity as God’s children, shaped by grace rather than status. This theme appears in Walking Worthy of Our Calling.
6. The Role of Cities in Shaping Identity
Cities like Ephesus played a major role in forming identity. Each city had its own laws, festivals, and cultural expectations. Ephesians lived within a world shaped by:
trade guilds,
civic pride,
imperial loyalty,
and local religion.
This civic identity is explored further in 5 Ways Trade Guilds Shaped Daily Life in Ancient Ephesus.
Paul invites believers to root their identity not in the city’s honor system but in the kingdom of God.
7. Political Citizenship vs. Heavenly Citizenship
Paul describes believers as being “seated with Christ in the heavenly realms” (Ephesians 2:6) and possessing a citizenship that transcends earthly categories.
This heavenly citizenship:
unites Jew and Gentile (see Jew and Gentile Unity in Ephesians),
frees believers from fear of spiritual powers,
offers a new sense of belonging,
and reorients loyalty around Christ.
It was a radical declaration in a world where identity was rooted in family, ethnicity, and civic pride.
8. Identity Formed by the Spirit
Paul emphasizes that identity in Christ is not achieved by law or lineage but given by the Spirit. Believers are “sealed with the promised Holy Spirit” (Ephesians 1:13), marking them with God’s ownership and care.
This spiritual identity shapes daily life through love, unity, wisdom, prayer, and perseverance. It stands in contrast to the shifting and fragile identities of the Roman world.
FAQs
Was Roman citizenship common?
No. A small percentage of the population held the status before the second century.
Did Paul use citizenship for protection?
Yes. Acts records that Paul used his Roman citizenship to secure legal rights.
How did early Christians relate to local civic identities?
Many felt tension between local expectations and loyalty to Christ.
Why is citizenship important for reading Ephesians?
Because Paul uses the concept to show the radical new identity believers receive in Christ.
Works Consulted
Garnsey, Peter, and Richard Saller. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Sherwin-White, A.N. The Roman Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
Toner, Jerry. Roman Identity: The Dynamics of Ancient Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2023.
