When Was Daniel Written?
Quick Summary
The Book of Daniel reflects two primary historical horizons. Its narrative setting is the Babylonian and early Persian periods of the sixth century BCE, while most scholars date its final composition to the second century BCE, during the crisis under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. This layered dating explains both Daniel’s detailed knowledge of earlier empires and its vivid apocalyptic focus on persecution and hope. Understanding when Daniel was written clarifies its purpose as literature of resistance and faithfulness.
Introduction
The Book of Daniel occupies a unique place in the Hebrew Bible. It combines court tales about Jewish faithfulness under foreign rule with apocalyptic visions that unfold cosmic conflict and divine deliverance. Because of this dual character, Daniel has long raised questions about when it was written.
At first glance, Daniel appears firmly rooted in the sixth century BCE. Its stories unfold during the Babylonian exile and early Persian period, featuring kings such as Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, and Darius. Yet the book’s visions speak most directly to events centuries later, particularly the persecution of Jews under Seleucid rule.
This article explores the historical setting, internal evidence, and scholarly perspectives that shape how the date of Daniel’s composition is understood.
Historical Setting of Daniel
The narrative portions of Daniel (chapters 1–6) are set during the Babylonian exile and the early Persian period. Daniel and his companions are portrayed as Judeans taken to Babylon, serving in royal courts while remaining faithful to God.
These stories reflect concerns familiar from exile: how to live faithfully under foreign rule, how to resist assimilation, and how God remains sovereign even when earthly empires dominate.
However, the visions in chapters 7–12 move beyond the exile. They focus on a sequence of empires culminating in intense persecution and divine intervention. This shift in emphasis is central to understanding the book’s date of composition (Collins, Daniel, Hermeneia, pp. 28–33).
Internal Evidence from the Visions
The most significant evidence for dating Daniel comes from its apocalyptic visions. Daniel 7–12 presents a sequence of kingdoms that closely parallels historical events from the Babylonian through Hellenistic periods.
The visions describe conflicts between kings of the north and south, culminating in the desecration of the temple and persecution of the faithful. These details align closely with the actions of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in the 160s BCE, particularly the suppression of Jewish worship and the installation of the so-called abomination of desolation (Daniel 11:31).
Notably, the visions are highly accurate up to this point and become less precise when describing events beyond Antiochus’ reign. This pattern strongly suggests that the book reached its final form during this crisis rather than centuries earlier (Collins, pp. 38–41).
Language and Literary Evidence
Daniel is written in both Hebrew and Aramaic. This bilingual composition reflects linguistic realities of the Persian and early Hellenistic periods.
The Aramaic used in Daniel aligns more closely with Imperial Aramaic than with later rabbinic forms, supporting a composition no later than the early Hellenistic era. At the same time, the Hebrew reflects late Biblical Hebrew rather than the classical style of pre-exilic texts.
Additionally, Daniel contains Persian loanwords and a small number of Greek terms, particularly related to musical instruments (Daniel 3). These linguistic features support a date after the Persian period and into the Hellenistic world (Collins, pp. 15–18).
Traditional and Scholarly Perspectives
Jewish and Christian tradition long associated Daniel with a sixth-century BCE prophet who lived during the exile. This traditional view emphasizes the narrative setting and the book’s portrayal of Daniel as a historical figure.
Modern scholarship, however, generally distinguishes between the setting of the stories and the date of composition. While the tales may preserve older traditions, the book as a whole is widely dated to around 167–164 BCE.
This dating does not deny the book’s theological authority. Rather, it situates Daniel as a work written for a specific moment of crisis, offering hope and endurance to a persecuted community.
Composition History and Structure
Daniel is best understood as a composite work. The court tales likely circulated independently before being gathered with the apocalyptic visions.
These materials were shaped into a unified book during the Maccabean crisis. The stories of faithful resistance provided models of courage, while the visions interpreted contemporary suffering within a larger divine plan.
This structure explains the book’s abrupt tonal shift between chapters 6 and 7 and its movement from narrative prose to symbolic vision (Newsom, Daniel, OTL, pp. 5–9).
Daniel and Apocalyptic Literature
Daniel is the earliest full example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible. Its visions of beasts, heavenly courts, and resurrection reflect a new theological mode that emerges during periods of intense oppression.
Apocalyptic literature does not merely predict the future. It reveals hidden meaning in present suffering and assures readers that history is under divine control.
Dating Daniel to the second century BCE places it alongside other Jewish apocalyptic works that emerged during times of persecution and political instability.
Relationship to Authorship
Questions of when Daniel was written intersect closely with questions of authorship. While the book is attributed to Daniel, its final form reflects collective composition rather than a single author.
The figure of Daniel functions as a symbolic representative of wisdom, faithfulness, and endurance. His voice anchors the book’s authority even as its message addresses a later generation.
For a fuller discussion of authorship, see Who Wrote Daniel?.
Why the Date of Daniel Matters
Dating Daniel clarifies its purpose. The book was not written as abstract prediction but as encouragement for a community facing existential threat.
Its promise of resurrection, divine judgment, and ultimate vindication speaks directly to those suffering injustice. Understanding its historical moment deepens appreciation for its theological power.
Frequently Asked Questions
Was Daniel written during the Babylonian exile?
The stories are set in exile, but the final composition is usually dated to the second century BCE.
Why does Daniel predict history so accurately?
The visions reflect events up to the time of writing and interpret them theologically.
Does this dating undermine Daniel’s authority?
No. It situates Daniel as faithful witness during persecution rather than detached prediction.
Why is Daniel partly written in Aramaic?
Aramaic was a common administrative language during the Persian and early Hellenistic periods.
Is Daniel considered prophecy or apocalypse?
Daniel combines prophetic tradition with apocalyptic vision, pioneering a new genre.
Works Consulted
John J. Collins, Daniel, Hermeneia. Carol A. Newsom, Daniel, Old Testament Library. John J. Collins, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, Fortress Press. The New Oxford Annotated Bible, NRSV.
